The caliph, now convinced of John's innocence, would fain have reinstated him in his former office, but the Damascene had heard a call to a higher life, and with his foster-brother entered the
monastery of St. Sabas, some eighteen miles south-east of
Jerusalem. After the usual probation, John V,
Patriarch of
Jerusalem, conferred on him the office of the
priesthood. In 754 the pseudo-Synod of Constantinople, convened at the command of Constantine Copronymus, the successor of Leo, confirmed the principles of the
Iconoclasts and
anathematized by name those who had conspicuously opposed them. But the largest measure of the council's spleen was reserved for John of
Damascus. He was called a "cursed favorer of Saracens", a "traitorous worshipper of images", a "wronger of Jesus Christ", a "teacher of impiety", and a "bad interpreter of the Scriptures". At the emperor's command his name was written "Manzer" (Manzeros, a bastard). But the
Seventh General Council of Nicea (787) made ample amends for the insults of his enemies, and
Theophanes, in 813, writes that he was surnamed Chrysorrhoas (golden stream) by his friends on account of his oratorical gifts. In the pontificate of
Leo XIII he was enrolled among the
doctors of the
Church. His
feast is celebrated on 27 March.
Xxx
John of
Damascus was the last of the
Greek Fathers. His genius was not for original
theological development, but for compilation of an encyclopedic character. In fact, the state of full development to which
theological thought had been brought by the great Greek writers and councils left him little else than the work of an encyclopedist; and this work he performed in such manner as to merit the gratitude of all succeeding ages. Some consider him the precursor of the
Scholastics, whilst others regard him as the first
Scholastic, and his
"De fide orthodoxa" as the first work of
Scholasticism. The Arabians too, owe not a little of the fame of their philosophy to his inspiration. The most important and best known of all his works is that to which the author himself gave the name of "Fountain of Wisdom" (pege gnoseos). This work has always been held in the highest esteem in both the
Catholic and Greek Churches. Its merit is not that of originality, for the author asserts, at the end of the second chapter of the "Dialectic", that it is not his purpose to set forth his own views, but rather to collate and epitomize in a single work the opinions of the great
ecclesiastical writers who have gone before him. A special interest attaches to it for the reason that it is the first attempt at a summa theologica that has come down to us.
The "Fountain of Wisdom" is divided into three parts, namely, "Philosophical Chapters" (Kephalaia philosophika), "Concerning Heresy" (peri aipeseon), and "An Exact Exposition of the Orthodox Faith" (Ikdosis akribes tes orthodoxou pisteos). The title of the first book is somewhat too comprehensive for its contents and consequently is more commonly called "Dialectic". With the exception of the fifteen chapters that deal exclusively with
logic, it has mostly to do with the ontology of
Aristotle. It is largely a summary of the Categories of
Aristotle with Porphyry's "Isagoge" (Eisagoge eis tas kategorias). It seems to have been John Damascene's purpose to give his readers only such
philosophical knowledge as was
necessary for understanding the subsequent parts of the "Fountain of Wisdom". For more than one reason the "Dialectic" is a work of unusual interest. In the first place, it is a record of the technical terminology used by the
Greek Fathers, not only against the
heretics, but also in the exposition of the Faith for the benefit of
Christians. It is interesting, too, for the reason that it is a partial exposition of the "Organon", and the application of its methods to
Catholic theology a century before the first Arabic translation of
Aristotle made its appearance. The second part, "Concerning Heresy", is little more than a copy of a similar work by Epiphanius, brought up to date by John Damascene. The author indeed expressly disclaims originality except in the chapters devoted to
Islamism,
Iconoclasm, and Aposchitae. To the list of eighty
heresies that constitute the "Panarion" of Epiphanius, he added twenty
heresies that had sprung up since his time. In treating of
Islamism he vigorously assails the immoral practices of
Mohammed and the corrupt teachings inserted in the
Koran to legalize the delinquencies of the
prophet. Like Epiphanius, he brings the work to a close with a fervent profession of Faith. John's authorship of this book has been challenged, for the reason that the writer, in treating of
Arianism, speaks of Arius, who died four centuries before the time of Damascene, as still living and working spiritual ruin among his people. The solution of the difficulty is to be found in the fact that John of Damascene did not epitomize the contents of the "Panarion", but copied it verbatim. Hence the passage referred to is in the exact words of Epiphanius himself, who was a contemporary of Arius.
"Concerning the Orthodox Faith", the third book of the "Fountain of Wisdom", is the most important of John Damascene's writings and one of the most notable works of
Christian antiquity. Its authority has always been great among the
theologians of the East and West. Here, again, the author modestly disavows any claim of originality — any purpose to essay a new exposition of
doctrinal truth. He assigns himself the less pretentious task of collecting in a single work the opinions of the ancient writers scattered through many volumes, and of systematizing and connecting them in a
logical whole. It is no small credit to John of
Damascus that he was able to give to the
Church in the eighth century its first summary of connected
theological opinions. At the command of Eugenius III it was rendered into Latin by Burgundio of
Pisa, in 1150, shortly before
Peter Lombard's "Book of Sentences" appeared. This translation was used by
Peter Lombard and
St. Thomas Aquinas, as well as by other
theologians, till the Humanists rejected it for a more elegant one. The author follows the same order as does
Theodoret of Cyrus in his "Epitome of Christian Doctrine". But, while he imitates the general plan of Theodoret, he does not make use of his method. He quotes, not only form the pages of
Holy Writ, but also from the writings of the Fathers. As a result, his work is an inexhaustible thesaurus of tradition which became the standard for the great
Scholastics who followed. In particular, he draws generously from
Gregory of Nazianzus, whose works he seems to have absorbed, from Basil,
Gregory of Nyssa,
Cyril of Alexandria,
Leo the Great,
Athanasius,
John Chrysostum, and Epiphanius. The work is divided into four books. This division, however, is an arbitrary one neither contemplated by the author nor justified by the Greek
manuscript. It is probably the work of a Latin translator seeking to accommodate it to the style of the four books of Lombard's "Sentences".
The first book of "The Orthodox Faith" treats of the essence and
existence of
God, the
Divine nature, and the
Trinity. As evidence of the
existence of God he cites the concurrence of opinion among those enlightened by Revelation and those who have only the light of reason to guide them. To the same end he employs the argument drawn from the mutability of created things and that from design. Treating, in the second book, of the physical world, he summarizes all the views of his times, without, however, committing himself to any of them. In the same treatise he discloses a comprehensive
knowledge of the
astronomy of his day. Here, also, place is given to the consideration of the nature of
angels and
demons, the
terrestrial paradise, the properties of
human nature, the foreknowledge of
God, and
predestination. Treating of man (c.xxvii), he gives what has been aptly called a "
psychology in nuce". Contrary to the teachings of Plotinus, the master of Porphyry, he identifies mind and
soul. In the third book the
personality and two-fold nature of Christ are discussed with great ability. This leads up to the consideration of the
Monophysite heresy. In this connexion he deals with Peter the Fuller's addition to the "Trisagion", and combats Anastasius's interpretation of this ancient
hymn. The latter, who was
Abbot of the
monastery of
St. Euthymius in Palestine, referred the "Trisagion" only to the Second Person of the Trinity. In his letter "Concerning the Trisagion" John Damascene contends that the
hymn applies not to the Son alone, but to each Person of the
Blessed Trinity. This book also contains a spirited defence of the Blessed Virgin's claim to the title of "Theotokos." Nestorius is vigorously dealt with for trying to substitute the title of "Mother of Christ" for "Mother of God". The Scriptures are discussed in the fourth book. In assigning twenty-two books to the
Old Testament canon he is treating of the Hebrew, and not the
Christian, Canon, as he finds it in a work of Epiphanius, "De ponderibus et mensuris". His treatment in this book of the
Real Presence is especially satisfactory. The nineteenth chapter contains a powerful plea for the veneration of images.
The treatise, "Against the Jacobites", was written at the request of Peter,
Metropolitan of
Damascus, who imposed on him the task of reconciling to the Faith the Jacobite
bishop. It is a strong polemic against the
Jacobites, as the
Monophysites in
Syria were called. He also wrote against the
Manicheans and
Monothelites. The "Booklet Concerning Right Judgment" is little more than a profession of Faith, confirmed by arguments setting forth the mysteries of the Faith, especially the Trinity and the Incarnation. Though John of
Damascus wrote voluminously on the Scriptures, as in the case of so much of his writing, his work bears little of the stamp of originality. His "Select Passages" (Loci Selecti), as he himself admits, are taken largely from the
homilies of
St. John Chrysostom and appended as commentaries to texts from the
Epistles of
St. Paul. The commentary on the Epistles to the Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Thessalonians is taken from
Cyril of Alexandria. The "Sacred Parallels" (Sacra parallela) is a kind of topical concordance, treating principally of
God, man, virtues, and vices.
Under the general title of "Homilies" he wrote fourteen discourses. The sermon on the Transfiguration, which
Lequien asserts was delivered in the church on Mt. Tabor, is of more than usual excellence. It is characterized by dramatic eloquence, vivid description, and a wealth of imagery. In it he discourses on his favorite topic, the twofold nature of
Christ, quotes the classic text of Scripture in testimony of the primacy of Peter, and witnesses the
Catholic doctrine of sacramental Penance. In his sermon on
Holy Saturday he descants on the
Easter duty and on the
Real Presence. The Annunciation is the text of a sermon, now extant only in a Latin version of an Arabic text, in which he attributes various
blessings to the intercession of the Blessed Virgin. The second of his three sermons on the Assumption is especially notable for its detailed account of the translation of the body of the Blessed Virgin into
heaven, an account, he avers, that is based on the most reliable and ancient tradition. Both Liddledale and Neale regard John of
Damascus as the prince of Greek hymnodists. His
hymns are contained in the "Carmina" of the
Lequien edition. The "canons" on the Nativity, Epiphany, and Pentecost are written in iambic trimeters. Three of his
hymns have become widely known and admired in their English version — "Those eternal bowers", "Come ye faithful raise the strain", and "Tis the Day of Resurrection". The most famous of the "canons" is that on
Easter. It is a song of triumph and thanksgiving — the "Te Deum" of the
Greek Church. It is a traditional opinion, lately controverted, that John Damascene composed the "Octoëchos", which contains the
liturgical hymns used by the
Greek Church in its Sunday services.
Gerbet, in his "History of Sacred Music", credits him with doing for the East what
Gregory the Great accomplished for the West — substitution of notes and other musical characters for the letters of the alphabet to indicate musical quantities. It is certain he adapted choral music to the purposes of the Liturgy.
Among the several works that are dubiously attributed to John Damascene the most important is the romance entitled "Barlaam and Josaphat". Throughout the
Middle Ages it enjoyed the widest popularity in all languages. It is not regarded as authentic by
Lequien, and the discovery of a Syriac version of the "Apology of Aristides" shows that what amounts to sixteen printed pages of it was taken directly from Aristides. The panegyric of
St. Barbara, while accepted as genuine by
Lequien, is rejected by many others. The treatise entitled "Concerning those who have died in the Faith" is rejected as spurious by Francisco Suárez,
Bellarmine, and
Lequien, not only on account of its
doctrinal discrepancies, but for its fabulous character as well. The first Greek edition of any of the works of John Damascene was that of the "Exact Exposition of the Orthodox Faith" brought out at
Verona (1531) under the auspices of John Matthew Gibertus,
Bishop of
Verona. Another Greek edition of the same work was published at Moldavia (1715) by John Epnesinus. It was also printed in a Latin edition at
Paris (1507), by James Faber. Henry Gravius, O.P., published a Latin edition at Cologne (1546) which contained the following works: "Dialectic", "Elementary and Dogmatic Instruction", "Concerning the two Wills and Operations", and "Concerning Heresy". A Greek-Latin edition with an introduction by Mark Hopper made its appearance at Basle (1548). A similar edition, but much more complete was published at the same place in 1575. Another Latin edition, constituting a partial collection of the author's works is that by
Michael Lequien,O.P., published at
Paris (1712) and
Venice (1748). To the reprint of this edition, P.G., XCIV-XCVI (Paris, 1864),
Migne has added a supplement of works attributed by some to the authorship of John Damascene.
